Secrets in the Stones: Decoding Anglo-Saxon Art. Part 2
Follow the Lozenges
The early to middle Anglo-Saxon period saw a number of shifts in fashion - often radical and sudden. Examples include the adoption of animal interlaces, or the adoption of filigree and lapidary work over earlier carved-and-cast decoration on items like brooches and buckles, in the late 6th century.
Due to the decline of furnished burials the fashions of the late 7th to 8th centuries were previously largely unknown to us, but a growing number of finds reported to the Portable Antiquities Scheme has allowed a previously unknown brooch type to be categorized. These were bizarre - fragile, and of a radically different design than earlier types, but were of a very specific, highly conserved shape, and appear to have become the main high-status dress item of the period. Why were they designed in this way? What, if anything, did they signify?
Our team began discussing this strange fashion in 2020. Little did we know where the trail of the lozenge brooch would lead....
Due to the decline of furnished burials the fashions of the late 7th to 8th centuries were previously largely unknown to us, but a growing number of finds reported to the Portable Antiquities Scheme has allowed a previously unknown brooch type to be categorized. These were bizarre - fragile, and of a radically different design than earlier types, but were of a very specific, highly conserved shape, and appear to have become the main high-status dress item of the period. Why were they designed in this way? What, if anything, did they signify?
Our team began discussing this strange fashion in 2020. Little did we know where the trail of the lozenge brooch would lead....
In the introduction to this series (here) we discussed how Anglo-Saxon art was mainly expressed through small personal objects such as dress-items. The designs on these works were likely loaded with meaning, serving as a means of identifying with, communicating, and handing down conceptual knowledge at a time of limited access to literacy. Most analysis of early to middle Anglo-Saxon art has focused on the evolution of animal art styles - forms and patterns which are abstract and strange compared to Classical naturalism, but in focusing on these elements we tend to ignore, or 'push to the background' the very least 'organic' elements - arrangements of shapes and angles which can easily be overlooked as purely decorative or space-filling. As an example for how such details might encode sophisticated knowledge and understanding, in Chapter 1 by James D. Wenn (here) discussed the interesting case of early Anglo-Saxon scabbard bosses which may encode a familiarity with Classical work on cosmology, musical harmony and the senses; Ptolemy's Harmonics, and two examples of comparanda - one contemporary and one from the late Anglo-Saxon period are briefly explored, to demonstrate that this appears to be a recurring theme, tempting us to look again at circular arrangements across the corpus of nominally 'Anglo-Saxon' personal artworks and also those of related cultures, to see what we can read from these items using this perspective; a huge task for another time.
While circular or radial arrangements appear to be a popular theme running continuously through Anglo-Saxon personal artworks, we also see radical changes in fashion and even apparent discontinuities. Some are driven by technical or economic factors - for example, the quite rapid shift from cast copper-alloy jewellery toward jewellery fabricated directly from gold and silver in the late 6th to 7th century seems to have been substantially driven by a sudden influx of these precious metals through trade; a trend which is reversed in the late 7th century (Fern et. al 2019). Others are driven by cultural contact, such as the re-seeding of 'Celtic' motifs such as the trumpet-spiral into Anglo-Saxon art leading to 'Insular' and 'Mercian Style', generally attributed to the growing cultural contact between 'Celtic' and 'Anglo-Saxon' spheres following Christianisation of the latter. The most important, and problematic discontinuity in the early middle Anglo-Saxon period is the end of the furnished burial rite; while in the 6th and early 7th century we can study a rich sample of personal items (biased by the selective choices people made to include objects in graves) from roughly the mid 7th century onwards, when folk were generally not buried with grave-goods, we have a much weaker sample of personal objects to study. Those we do have were usually subject to accidental loss (often following breakage) and later recovered by metal-detectorists, so are subject to different sampling biases. It is for studying trends in this period that the work of the Portable Antiquities Scheme is particularly important; as the database of finds from the late 7th to 8th centuries grows, previously unnoticed trends come into focus.
While circular or radial arrangements appear to be a popular theme running continuously through Anglo-Saxon personal artworks, we also see radical changes in fashion and even apparent discontinuities. Some are driven by technical or economic factors - for example, the quite rapid shift from cast copper-alloy jewellery toward jewellery fabricated directly from gold and silver in the late 6th to 7th century seems to have been substantially driven by a sudden influx of these precious metals through trade; a trend which is reversed in the late 7th century (Fern et. al 2019). Others are driven by cultural contact, such as the re-seeding of 'Celtic' motifs such as the trumpet-spiral into Anglo-Saxon art leading to 'Insular' and 'Mercian Style', generally attributed to the growing cultural contact between 'Celtic' and 'Anglo-Saxon' spheres following Christianisation of the latter. The most important, and problematic discontinuity in the early middle Anglo-Saxon period is the end of the furnished burial rite; while in the 6th and early 7th century we can study a rich sample of personal items (biased by the selective choices people made to include objects in graves) from roughly the mid 7th century onwards, when folk were generally not buried with grave-goods, we have a much weaker sample of personal objects to study. Those we do have were usually subject to accidental loss (often following breakage) and later recovered by metal-detectorists, so are subject to different sampling biases. It is for studying trends in this period that the work of the Portable Antiquities Scheme is particularly important; as the database of finds from the late 7th to 8th centuries grows, previously unnoticed trends come into focus.
Changing fashions in brooch types are particularly fascinating. Essential for holding together the typical womens "peplos-style" dress of the 5-6th centuries, brooches became less common as grave-goods into the 7th century as women increasingly wore fitted gowns (Owen-Crocker, 2004), but brooches were still useful for pinning shawls / veils, cloaks and coats. It's quite remarkable, then, that bow-brooches which had dominated the 5-6th centuries (including small-long, cruciform, and square-headed brooches) effectively, and seemingly quite abruptly died out at the turn of the 7th century (Bayliss et. al 2017). So, too, did saucer and button brooches, while elaborate disc-brooches - always uncommon - managed to survive, alongside the occasional annular and penannular brooch (ultimately of ancient 'Celtic' affinity).
As we move into the 8th century a radically new type of brooch appears, again almost entirely represented by stray but confidently dated thanks to characteristic, highly dateable Mercian-style decoration. These objects could hardly appear more different than the equivalent items which preceded them, thus representing quite an abrupt discontinuity; without prior knowledge it would be easy to imagine they belonged to an entirely different culture than the dress-items worn by Anglo-Saxon women only a few decades before.
These brooches - the 'lozenge' / 'strip' brooch (Weetch Type 31) have only been defined as their own type relatively recently (Weetch 2014), substantially thanks to the growing number which have been added to the Portable Antiquities Scheme (Geake, 2018). There has thus far been very little commentary on this peculiar fashion; how these bizarre objects evolved and what they mean or represent. The adoption of this design as the main high-status dress-item of the age, at the expense of almost all others, was a non-trivial choice; what was its meaning? The most important class of dress items confidently dateable to the early 8th century - a time which is otherwise an evidentiary bottleneck - its clear that if only we could understand these objects better, we might gain a clearer understanding of this turbulent period during which Anglo-Saxon Christianity and monasticism was refined, and petty kingdoms developed into increasingly well-organised proto-states. As a design which grows from seeds in early Anglo-Saxon material, while so many other designs and motifs are allowed to wither and die out, understanding the lozenge-brooch might give us insight into the priorities of folk of the middle Anglo-Saxon period; which aspects of their cultural repertoire were prioritised for conservation, or into which they invested more of their identity, as their world transformed around them.
Discussion of the mystery of the lozenge-brooch among our team in 2020-21 led to many of the subsequent discoveries upon which the remainder of this series will focus, and so it seems appropriate that a partial review of the corpus of these brooches be presented first, together with an examination of related motifs from before and after the 8th century, to build a picture of how this design evolved and what it informed. Future instalments will explore the meanings behind the design and their wide-ranging implications.
As we move into the 8th century a radically new type of brooch appears, again almost entirely represented by stray but confidently dated thanks to characteristic, highly dateable Mercian-style decoration. These objects could hardly appear more different than the equivalent items which preceded them, thus representing quite an abrupt discontinuity; without prior knowledge it would be easy to imagine they belonged to an entirely different culture than the dress-items worn by Anglo-Saxon women only a few decades before.
These brooches - the 'lozenge' / 'strip' brooch (Weetch Type 31) have only been defined as their own type relatively recently (Weetch 2014), substantially thanks to the growing number which have been added to the Portable Antiquities Scheme (Geake, 2018). There has thus far been very little commentary on this peculiar fashion; how these bizarre objects evolved and what they mean or represent. The adoption of this design as the main high-status dress-item of the age, at the expense of almost all others, was a non-trivial choice; what was its meaning? The most important class of dress items confidently dateable to the early 8th century - a time which is otherwise an evidentiary bottleneck - its clear that if only we could understand these objects better, we might gain a clearer understanding of this turbulent period during which Anglo-Saxon Christianity and monasticism was refined, and petty kingdoms developed into increasingly well-organised proto-states. As a design which grows from seeds in early Anglo-Saxon material, while so many other designs and motifs are allowed to wither and die out, understanding the lozenge-brooch might give us insight into the priorities of folk of the middle Anglo-Saxon period; which aspects of their cultural repertoire were prioritised for conservation, or into which they invested more of their identity, as their world transformed around them.
Discussion of the mystery of the lozenge-brooch among our team in 2020-21 led to many of the subsequent discoveries upon which the remainder of this series will focus, and so it seems appropriate that a partial review of the corpus of these brooches be presented first, together with an examination of related motifs from before and after the 8th century, to build a picture of how this design evolved and what it informed. Future instalments will explore the meanings behind the design and their wide-ranging implications.
The Lozenge Brooch / Weetch Type 31
'Safety Pin Brooches' from Swallowcliffe Down (Speake, 1989) Earlier Anglo-Saxon brooches (both the broadest-sense 'long' or 'bow' family, and the disc family inclusive of saucers - for more, see Portable Antiquities Scheme brooches resource) placed the functional elements - hinge/spring, pin, and catch, hidden behind/underneath the decorative structural body of the brooch, against the body of the wearer, or else the pin was made a visually important element spanning the interior of the brooch (in the case of annulars, penannulars and quoits). In the late 7th century there is a very brief and, judging by their rarity, limited flirtation with placement of the functional elements on one side of the brooch, in the rare 'safety pin brooch' type (Geake, 2018).
These were small, flimsy and all made in one piece, with pin-spring and pin-catch continuous with the opposite tips of the brooch body. The eschewing of the busy decoration of earlier styles, on these brooches, could be viewed as a meaningful statement in and of itself, but they were not necessarily austere - many of the extant examples were made of silver. Archaeology provides little insight into how these brooches were worn, or for what purpose; the best documented are a matching set of five from a high status late c7th burial at Swallowcliff Down, Wiltshire (Speake, 1989) but frustratingly these were actually stored within a box beside the body, rather than worn as part of the burial dress. The sideways orientation of these brooches would have allowed them to sit extremely flat against whatever fabric they pinned, which might be suggestive of the use of finer fabrics and/or tighter tailoring at this time.
Moving into the 8th century, related strip-brooches emerge, with the functional elements continuous with the body, much the same as the aforementioned safety-pin brooches, but with the elements re-oriented back to the traditional arrangement, allowing the body to expand into a flat plate which somewhat hides the pin.
These were small, flimsy and all made in one piece, with pin-spring and pin-catch continuous with the opposite tips of the brooch body. The eschewing of the busy decoration of earlier styles, on these brooches, could be viewed as a meaningful statement in and of itself, but they were not necessarily austere - many of the extant examples were made of silver. Archaeology provides little insight into how these brooches were worn, or for what purpose; the best documented are a matching set of five from a high status late c7th burial at Swallowcliff Down, Wiltshire (Speake, 1989) but frustratingly these were actually stored within a box beside the body, rather than worn as part of the burial dress. The sideways orientation of these brooches would have allowed them to sit extremely flat against whatever fabric they pinned, which might be suggestive of the use of finer fabrics and/or tighter tailoring at this time.
Moving into the 8th century, related strip-brooches emerge, with the functional elements continuous with the body, much the same as the aforementioned safety-pin brooches, but with the elements re-oriented back to the traditional arrangement, allowing the body to expand into a flat plate which somewhat hides the pin.
Simple, presumed early / transitional lozenge / strip brooch from Perlethorpe cum Budby, Nottinghamshire. (PAS DENO-3FD883)
Lozenge / strip brooch, gilt bronze, from Lincolnshire. (PAS NLM1) featuring 'Mercian Style' interlace. The smaller and, we assume, earlier examples of these see the plate expand into a flat sub-lozenge which is typically plain (thus confounding precise dating) but ultimately grows into a precisely and carefully shaped, sharp-cornered lozenge providing a large surface area for intricate decoration. Although the functional elements were sometimes riveted to the lozenge plate, more typically these were all made in one piece - the coiled spring of the pin continuous with one corner of the lozenge, and the the pin-catch continuous with the opposite corner. The flimsiness of this design combined with the inherent brittleness of cast copper-alloy accounts for why most extant examples are found broken. It is probably this tendency toward breakage that explains the occurrence of these objects as stray finds, and is ultimately a consequence of prioritising the uninterrupted purity of the lozenge-plate above practical concerns. Rarely the plate may take other shapes - including discs or crosses - but the one-piece construction with the hinge/spring and catch on opposite sides of the decorated plate rather than hidden behind it, is the key feature which distinguishes these 8th century brooches from those which came before, and after. Studying a brooch in isolation rather than as part of a costume, this approach may appear uglier, but it would allow these brooches to sit flatter / tighter against clothing producing a smoother or more integrated appearance.
Although often found in relatively poor states of preservation with dull surfaces, lozenge-brooches appear to have often been of the highest quality of craftsmanship of the period, mercury / fire gilded and sometimes integrating extremely fine chip-carved 'Mercian Style' interlace designs which have been invaluable for dating the type. XRF analysis of one example, commissioned by Corinium Museum Cirencester (Schuster, 2012) revealed its composition to be a lead and zinc-rich copper alloy with added silver, and with design interstices enhanced by a non-niello black paste which could not be identified.
'Mercian style' is typified by very crisp and carefully planned interlace of fine lines, cut with deep voids between, and is descended from earlier Anglo-Saxon animal art, but also often incorporates swirling elements descended from 'Celtic' motifs. Far from exclusive to Mercian finds, it is so named as it was the dominant jewellery style across Britain for much of the 8th century when the kingdom of Mercia was politically dominant. Although coding in the PAS database is currently insufficiently rigorous to allow for spatial analysis, at a glance, lozenge brooches do appear unusually highly represented in the core counties of the kingdom of Mercia, and particularly around c8th Mercian power-centres, particularly around Repton and Leicester, along with the Mercian vassals of Lindsey and Hwicce. It's therefore not impossible that these very distinctive brooches were a signifier of Mercian cultural affiliation, political, or even religious power.
Although often found in relatively poor states of preservation with dull surfaces, lozenge-brooches appear to have often been of the highest quality of craftsmanship of the period, mercury / fire gilded and sometimes integrating extremely fine chip-carved 'Mercian Style' interlace designs which have been invaluable for dating the type. XRF analysis of one example, commissioned by Corinium Museum Cirencester (Schuster, 2012) revealed its composition to be a lead and zinc-rich copper alloy with added silver, and with design interstices enhanced by a non-niello black paste which could not be identified.
'Mercian style' is typified by very crisp and carefully planned interlace of fine lines, cut with deep voids between, and is descended from earlier Anglo-Saxon animal art, but also often incorporates swirling elements descended from 'Celtic' motifs. Far from exclusive to Mercian finds, it is so named as it was the dominant jewellery style across Britain for much of the 8th century when the kingdom of Mercia was politically dominant. Although coding in the PAS database is currently insufficiently rigorous to allow for spatial analysis, at a glance, lozenge brooches do appear unusually highly represented in the core counties of the kingdom of Mercia, and particularly around c8th Mercian power-centres, particularly around Repton and Leicester, along with the Mercian vassals of Lindsey and Hwicce. It's therefore not impossible that these very distinctive brooches were a signifier of Mercian cultural affiliation, political, or even religious power.
A religious dimension is certainly suggested by a minority of examples where crosses are integrated into the decoration of the lozenge plate, as in the case of BUC-4D849D (Quainton, Bucks) and particularly WMID-054B67 from the Staffordshire Moorlands, where a cross with circular terminals (within which are holes, suggestive of now missing rivets, perhaps settings for gems) fills the lozenge, around which is an intricate angular 'Greek key' pattern. Close examination reveals these to be, effectively, angular expressions of trumpet-spiral designs but also, in arrangements of four, suggestive of fylfots / swastikas, with arms spiralling ever inward, creating a corridor-illusion with something of a hypnotic or fractal quality. This brooch has particularly strong affinities with 8th century manuscript illuminations and undoubtedly is part of the same artistic tradition (see later).
Often, though, the lozenge-brooch plate is subdivided into four or more lozenge fields of precisely the same proportions; effectively they are tiled with miniature versions of themselves. These in turn are filled, often, with concentric or 'Greek Key' designs, again creating a kind of corridor-illusion.
Unfortunately as they are not found in grave contexts, we have no idea how, or by whom, these brooches were worn, but as they clearly are in dialogue with the manuscript illuminations of the same period it is worth examining.
Often, though, the lozenge-brooch plate is subdivided into four or more lozenge fields of precisely the same proportions; effectively they are tiled with miniature versions of themselves. These in turn are filled, often, with concentric or 'Greek Key' designs, again creating a kind of corridor-illusion.
Unfortunately as they are not found in grave contexts, we have no idea how, or by whom, these brooches were worn, but as they clearly are in dialogue with the manuscript illuminations of the same period it is worth examining.
Manuscript Art
A cursory glance at illuminations from some of the more famous 8-9th century insular illuminated manuscripts reveals them to be full of lozenge-patterns (along with tilted-squares, which for the purposes of this chapter are interchangeable).
On carpet pages from the Lindisfarne Gospels (700–720 CE) we see lozenge motifs incorporating the fourfold 'Greek-key' designs very similar to the lozenge-brooch from Staffordshire, and others, and they are common motifs incorporated elsewhere in the illuminations, but even find their way into the script. Notably, in the 'Roman Capitals' used on the illuminated title pages, A and O characters are reshaped so that their voids become lozenges. That the lozenge is a symbol with religious significance in early Christianity identified with the divine is not a new idea, and the incorporation of the symbol into the A and O characters evokes the the "Alpha and Omega" of Revelation.
"Lozengy letters" - Lindisfarne Gospels (Fol. 29r) British Library
In the Book of Kells (c8-9th; Trinity College Dublin) the arms of the Chi on the famously elaborate Chi-Rho page 34r intersect at a sharply drawn lozenge, emphasised with another lozenge precisely at its core. Elsewhere (such as 183r) lozenges decorate pillars or beams, while angular interlace fills lettering creating a pattern of lozenges. A lozenge is placed at the heart of the stylised book design on the Luke Incipit page (188r) and occupies the centre of the illumination of fol. 290v surrounded by the four evangelist symbols. On the most famous page of the Codex Amiatinus (early 7th century) - a portrait of the prophet Ezra depicted as an Anglo-Saxon scribe - each holy book in the case shown behind him has a cover decorated with lozenge patterns. Elsewhere in the Codex mobile or dendrogram-like diagrams explaining the divisions of the various books included in the work - both canonical and deuterocanonical - are organised in columns represented as, alternately, crucifixes and lozenges.
Lozenges are not always placed in locations of special significance, however; it is common to see 'lozengy fields' of red dotted lines form the background of the text, sometimes interrupted by short sections of simply outlined but uncoloured interlace. These create the sense of a work-in-progress, with the lozengy field serving as a scaffold onto which the intricate designs will be built.
Indeed, during a recent project in which it was necessary to compose an original design following the style of Anglo-Saxon animal interlace, the author reviewed basic 'how-to' guides for drawing so-called 'Celtic' interlace and found that drawing a diagonal grid to act as a scaffold for the design - a lozengy field - was a commonly recommended strategy. These guides may have inadvertently identified that lozenges are actually the fundamental building blocks that the world within the pages of insular manuscripts was built from.
Among the manuscripts packed with lozenges and lozenge-patterns it is the Book of Kells Folio 7v which is probably the most useful to us, providing us with our only depiction of the wearing of one of these strange lozenge brooches. This is thought to be the earliest depiction of the Madonna and Child in Western manuscript art, and corresponds closely to a similar, though cruder, representation on the Coffin of St Cuthbert (698 CE). The brooch sits flat on the right shoulder of the voluminous outer garment, and unfortunately, as it is highly stylized we cannot get a sense of whether the brooch pins that garment together or is merely being worn as a badge.
Among the manuscripts packed with lozenges and lozenge-patterns it is the Book of Kells Folio 7v which is probably the most useful to us, providing us with our only depiction of the wearing of one of these strange lozenge brooches. This is thought to be the earliest depiction of the Madonna and Child in Western manuscript art, and corresponds closely to a similar, though cruder, representation on the Coffin of St Cuthbert (698 CE). The brooch sits flat on the right shoulder of the voluminous outer garment, and unfortunately, as it is highly stylized we cannot get a sense of whether the brooch pins that garment together or is merely being worn as a badge.
Nevertheless, the colours chosen imply a bichrome plating of silver and gold, and close examination reveals the brooch to be decorated with the familiar lozenges-within-lozenges or Greek-key pattern, exactly like the lozenge brooches which have been found. The only respect in which this depiction differs from the finds, is the inclusion of 'knobs' on the corners (creating what would later be termed, in heraldry, the 'lozenge pommetty') though these match the spots which decorate her cloak. As if this unique representation of a lozenge-brooch were not attention-grabbing enough, contrasting strongly with the dark red cloak behind, the infant Christ is shown gesturing toward it with his left hand.
Other Middle Anglo-Saxon Lozenges
Once the role of the lozenge as the fundamental building-block of 8th century art is recognised, it's difficult not to see patterns of lozenges everywhere hiding in the intersections of Anglo-Saxon interlace, and especially, the rigid fine-line interlaces of Mercian style. The lozenge brooch below provides a particularly clear example where the 'lozengy' quality of the interlace works in concert with the brooch's shape, to fractal, or even self-referential effect. The spectacular deployment of Mercian style interlace on the disc elements of the famous linked Witham Pins (British Museum) provides, in places, a vivid matrix of lozenges, juxtaposed with linking elements that are, of course, lozenge shaped.
Elsewhere though we see single lozenges used in isolation where they appear to carry symbolic importance. This is particularly the case with coinage, which from the 7th into the 8th century became an important means for visually communicating and promoting the legitimacy of kingdoms and their rulers. Initially this propaganda messaging was achieved via emulation of Roman designs (particularly with a square element interpreted as a skeuomorph of a Roman standard on the reverse) and Christian symbols sometimes paired with stylised beasts, swastika symbols, runes, and teardrop-shaped faces with distinctly 'pagan' overtones, which all might communicate legitimacy via identification of the regime with the ancestor-gods. Middle Anglo-Saxon coins were produced by a large number of moneyers and so are highly variable in design, even within the lifetime of a single ruler. Very tiny, these coins tended to use very simple lettering, and die-cutters had no difficulty including round pellets, rings, and circular 'O' characters, probably achieved using a ring-and-dot drill. It's interesting, then, that in the 8th century a number of moneyers appear to make the conscious choice to using the laboriously cut 'lozengy' A and O characters already discussed in relation to manuscripts, when spelling the king's name. This skillfully smuggles in lozenges as a symbol-of-power onto the coin-face while also subtly identifying the king with the divine; a link which is made more explicit in cases where a 'lozengy' alpha and omega, positioned around a cross, are placed on the coin's reverse.
The lozenge becomes the central symbol or feature on the 'tails side' of coinage, particularly during the reign of King Offa of Mercia, who introduced the larger, and thinner silver penny which provided a larger surface for higher-resolution design. This reform of coinage occurred simultaneously in the Frankish Empire under the rulership of Offa's correspondent Charlemagne, and it is still a matter of debate as to which kingdom invented the penny first.
Among the countless variations of Offa's silver pennies lozenges are found as the main motif on the reverse of the majority of them. Sometimes the lozenge frames a cross, an asterisk or rosette, and sometimes itself serves as the central part of a 'floriate cross' design which spans the full surface of the coin. In contrast, Charlemagne's coins featured lozenges less prominently. A smaller lozenge was, however, placed at the heart of his 'signum manus' - his personal Chi-Rho style ligated monogram, in which the central lozenge represented the vowels in "KAROLVS". It seems, then, that both Offa and Charlemagne - both reforming and well-educated rulers by the standards of the time, had chosen to identify with, or had become identified with, the lozenge as a symbol of legitimacy or power. In England the central lozenge design (often referred to as "cross-and-lozenge") becomes particularly associated with mints in Canterbury and London.
Fewer coins were minted under the turbulent reign of the short list of lesser Mercian kings who followed Offa's reign, and lozenge designs feature less prominently. As we will see later, however, they do make a resurgence under the reign of another Anglo-Saxon 'philosopher king'.
Among the countless variations of Offa's silver pennies lozenges are found as the main motif on the reverse of the majority of them. Sometimes the lozenge frames a cross, an asterisk or rosette, and sometimes itself serves as the central part of a 'floriate cross' design which spans the full surface of the coin. In contrast, Charlemagne's coins featured lozenges less prominently. A smaller lozenge was, however, placed at the heart of his 'signum manus' - his personal Chi-Rho style ligated monogram, in which the central lozenge represented the vowels in "KAROLVS". It seems, then, that both Offa and Charlemagne - both reforming and well-educated rulers by the standards of the time, had chosen to identify with, or had become identified with, the lozenge as a symbol of legitimacy or power. In England the central lozenge design (often referred to as "cross-and-lozenge") becomes particularly associated with mints in Canterbury and London.
Fewer coins were minted under the turbulent reign of the short list of lesser Mercian kings who followed Offa's reign, and lozenge designs feature less prominently. As we will see later, however, they do make a resurgence under the reign of another Anglo-Saxon 'philosopher king'.
Early Anglo-Saxon Lozenges?
Sutton Hoo Mound 1 iron stand(ard) ( (C) British Museum) Having established the importance of lozenges as a building block, symbol, and preoccupation of 8th century Anglo-Saxon art, its worth briefly examining their antecedents and seeing how far back they extend.
Certainly the interlaces of the 7th century often have the 'lozengy' quality, though adhered to less rigidly than in Mercian style. These include, in particular, wire filigree decoration such as that which decorates the majority of weapon fittings in the Staffordshire Hoard (Fern et. al. 2019); we might also see the 'lozengy matrix' reflected in the famously carpet-page-like lapidary work of the Sutton Hoo shoulder-clasps. The main feature of the mysterious iron 'standard' from Sutton Hoo Mound-1 (carver, 1998), which some consider to be an armour stand, was a concentric arrangement or grill of iron lozenges.
Looking further back, to cemetery material of the 5th and 6th centuries there are far fewer items where lozenges feature. The division of space on the footplate of square-headed or other bow-brooches of the 6th century sometimes produces a concave lozenge field for decoration but it's unclear whether this was done 'knowingly'. A number of late 6th century brooches, particularly radiating from Kent, appear to incorporate lozenges more deliberately - the footplate sometimes includes a lozenge-shaped gem setting (albeit alongside settings of other shapes, where they fit in the classic design) and it is not unheard of for the footplate to incorporate the fractal 'lozenges within lozenge' design we have already seen so much of from the 8th century (eg. Chatham Lines, see below).
Certainly the interlaces of the 7th century often have the 'lozengy' quality, though adhered to less rigidly than in Mercian style. These include, in particular, wire filigree decoration such as that which decorates the majority of weapon fittings in the Staffordshire Hoard (Fern et. al. 2019); we might also see the 'lozengy matrix' reflected in the famously carpet-page-like lapidary work of the Sutton Hoo shoulder-clasps. The main feature of the mysterious iron 'standard' from Sutton Hoo Mound-1 (carver, 1998), which some consider to be an armour stand, was a concentric arrangement or grill of iron lozenges.
Looking further back, to cemetery material of the 5th and 6th centuries there are far fewer items where lozenges feature. The division of space on the footplate of square-headed or other bow-brooches of the 6th century sometimes produces a concave lozenge field for decoration but it's unclear whether this was done 'knowingly'. A number of late 6th century brooches, particularly radiating from Kent, appear to incorporate lozenges more deliberately - the footplate sometimes includes a lozenge-shaped gem setting (albeit alongside settings of other shapes, where they fit in the classic design) and it is not unheard of for the footplate to incorporate the fractal 'lozenges within lozenge' design we have already seen so much of from the 8th century (eg. Chatham Lines, see below).
"Lozenges within lozenges" certainly show up often among early Anglo-Saxon textiles. In Penelope Walton-Rogers' sample of textile remains from early Anglo-Saxon graves (Walton-Rogers, 2007), around 11% of ZZ twills (both linen and wool, n=99) and over 32% of ZS twills (both linen and wool, n=112 +/-11) were patterned weaves with reversal of twill diagonals - ie. chevron or diamond/lozenge twill. Elsewhere she clarifies that when it is possible for chevron and diamond twills to be distinguished, diamond twill is at least twice as common as chevron twill, and that these textiles are more common in, though not exclusive to high status burials. Based on remains from later contexts she suggests diamond twill remained popular throughout the Anglo-Saxon period, relatively abruptly dying out "during the Anglo-Norman period" (Walton-Rogers, 2007).
Trace evidence of tablet-woven braids or borders are common among textile remains but pattern is almost never discernible. One exception - from an early Anglo-Saxon grave in Laceby, Lincolnshire, certainly featured lozenges, as did a controversial pattern of threaded-in diamonds adhering to an undecorated strap-end found in Cambridge (known as the "Cambridge Diamonds" pattern, this is widely regarded as being of post-Anglo-Saxon date). To these we can add at least eight of the fifteen smaller gold-brocades from 6th century Kentish graves reconstructed by Crowfoot & Hawkes (1967), the wider elements of gold brocade from the Taplow princely burial, and the more recently published gold brocade from the Prittewell Princely burial (Blackmore et. al. 2019) all of which featured lozenge patterns.
In the case of the Prittlewell brocade (shown below) gold lozenges alternate with un-brocaded lozenges of the ground-weave; these are separated and highlighted by paired triangular elements of the gold brocade-work; these two triangles are two complementary halves of the lozenge.
This being said, tabletweave and brocade are techniques which naturally lend themselves to producing diamond/lozenge patterns. We should probably not read too much into this except to note that Anglo-Saxons appear to have enjoyed lozenge patterns as part of their dress long before the advent of the lozenge-brooch craze. Lozenge patterns also occur in early Anglo-Saxon glasswork, seen among the patterns of expensive polychrome beads (see below) and in the trailed decoration of glass vessels, such as the palm-cups from Broomfield and Prittlewell princely burials (Blackmore et. al. 2019).
Lozenge-shapes also occur among c5-7th martial gear. Fittings for the front of shields - other than discs or studs - are very rare, but where they do occur they are most often lozenge-shaped (Dickinson & Harke, 1992). The significance of the lozenge shape in this context has so far evaded interpretation. It's even tempting to read significance into the choice made by many early Anglo-Saxon smiths, or their customers, to fashion spearheads into angular lozenge shapes rather than leaf shapes, which, in turn, also often have a lozenge cross-section (Swanton, 1974).
Late Anglo-Saxon Lozenges
Strickland Brooch (9th century) ( (C) British Museum) Moving into the late Anglo-Saxon period we see lozenges feature less prominently among dress items, though the concave-sided features on Trewiddle style disc-brooches of the 9th-10th century, including the already-discussed Fuller Brooch (chapter 1), Cheddar Brooch, Strickland Brooch, Beeston Tor Brooch, Petney Hoard brooches and others, could be regarded as stylised lozenges wheeling around in a circular field; effectively 'finding harmony' between the competing disc and lozenge-brooch fashions which came before.
Two intriguing finds of extremely fine gold rings in the form of nested lozenges, intricately decorated with filigree around a central setting, from the West Yorkshire Hoard and from Priory Park Hitchin, Hertfordshire, respectively, both date to the 9th-10th century and are suggestive of continued significance of the lozenge as a symbol of royal or religious power.
Two intriguing finds of extremely fine gold rings in the form of nested lozenges, intricately decorated with filigree around a central setting, from the West Yorkshire Hoard and from Priory Park Hitchin, Hertfordshire, respectively, both date to the 9th-10th century and are suggestive of continued significance of the lozenge as a symbol of royal or religious power.
The West Yorkshire Hoard example had a garnet cabochon in a toothed bezel at its centre, and was found with another gold filigree ring of signet design, which featured a lozenge-centred floriate cross design reminiscent of those found on coins. In the case of the Hitchin Ring, the central gem setting was a recycled Roman carnelian intaglio, again in a toothed bezel. This was found on the site of an earlier medieval monastery; its thus tempting to imagine both rings were worn by late Anglo-Saxon bishops. A rather different gold ring now in the V&A Museum features alternating Trewiddle-beast decorated lozenge elements, and circular elements with letters spelling the name "Ahlstan". This was found in new Colwyn Bay in Wales, and the 'Ahlstan' of the inscription is thought to be the early 9th century Bishop of Sherbourne who accompanied West-Saxon King Egbert's invasion of Wales in 828 CE.
From at least the 9th century, lozenges and lozenge-patterns are seen on monumental stonework, both in Britain and Ireland. A substantial lozenge framing a cross is hidden or woven into the interlace on the south side base of the Bewcastle Cross shaft, and, more clearly, a column of lozenges can be seen on one of the Sandbach crosses, variously infilled with human, animal, vegetal and interlacing decoration (Hawkes, 2003).
From at least the 9th century, lozenges and lozenge-patterns are seen on monumental stonework, both in Britain and Ireland. A substantial lozenge framing a cross is hidden or woven into the interlace on the south side base of the Bewcastle Cross shaft, and, more clearly, a column of lozenges can be seen on one of the Sandbach crosses, variously infilled with human, animal, vegetal and interlacing decoration (Hawkes, 2003).
Moone Cross (c9th, County Kildare, Ireland), Sandbach and Bewcastle (Cumbria, Uk) cross shafts. Images from Wikimedia Commons
In coinage, the lozenge design initially peaked in the reign of King Offa but underwent a resurgence in the middle 9th century, particularly on coins minted in London and Canterbury (Gannon, 2019). Coins of the final independent king of Mercia, Ceolwulf II, feature the 'cross-and-lozenge' design, while his contemporary, king Alfred the Great becomes the first West Saxon king to have coins minted prominently featuring this motif. It is now recognised that Ælfred and Ceolwulf had a limited series of coins minted which recognised their co-equal authority as kings of Merica and Wessex respectively, prior to their collapse of relations, with the famous but rare "two emperors" coins featuring either Ceolwulf King of Mercia, or Ælfred king of Wessex on one side, and an identical motif of both rulers enthroned side-by-side on the reverse. However with the ultimate West Saxon takeover of Mercia and its mints, the cross-and-lozenge style of coin seems to have been wholeheartedly adopted by King Ælfred - a known admirer of Offa and Charlemagne, who appears to have been happy to be identified with whatever their favourite symbol represented, and in turn, with their golden legacy.
'Cross and lozenge' type penny of King Ælfred the Great.
Even within Britain during the time of Ælfred, however, the preoccupation with lozenge designs does not seem to have been exclusive to Christians or cultural 'Anglo-Saxons' for it, notably, also 'colonises' Anglo-Scandinavian jewellery thought to have been important, during the time of the Danelaw, as a means of expressing Scandinavian cultural identity. Notable examples include the Anglo-Scandinavian openwork-lozenge brooch type, but also the lattice of lozenges often seen on 'tortoise brooches', and the lozenge-motifs interwoven with more fluid knotwork on 'Anglian series' Scandinavian brooches and the Terslev variant of Borre style. Although engagement of Scandinavian craftspeople with lozenge patterns may have been invigorated by increased exposure to the Anglo-Saxon lozenge obsession due to late 8th century raiding and 9th century invasion / colonisation, presence of sparingly used lozenge designs in Broa-style - the earliest nominally 'Viking' art style - suggests the lozenge motif was legible and significant to folk outside of a Christian context.
It should also be acknowledged how lozenges and lozenge-patterns do feature prominently in late Roman and Byzantine art - two dimensional marble relief slabs from the 8-10th centuries being a particularly rich pool of examples, where lozenges were worked into abstract arrangements with other shapes, which have long been considered to have carried obscure spiritual meanings. Such designs show up in early medieval manuscripts, sometimes annotated, as visualisations of theological or metaphysical concepts, but many remain obscure. Skipping ahead we see the lozenge, as a symbol, and its associated patterns becoming increasingly important in heraldry, and in stately architecture (as discussed in much more depth in the upcoming book on which this series is based) having been extensively seeded during the first millennium, and in religious art, it becomes increasingly common to depict 'Christ in Majesty' in a lozenge frame.
The artistic traditions of the medieval world were highly networked, and although a review of such patterns beyond Britain is outside of the scope of this work, we note that the visual language we are grappling with is part of a wider shared heritage. It is therefore very likely that there remain key pieces of this puzzle known to others, especially in parts of the artistic network we cannot be so familiar with, that remain unknown to us. Hopefully, however, this also means that the learning perspectives offered in future chapters of this series might be helpful to those studying the art and achievements of other historic cultures and encourage further discoveries.
It should also be acknowledged how lozenges and lozenge-patterns do feature prominently in late Roman and Byzantine art - two dimensional marble relief slabs from the 8-10th centuries being a particularly rich pool of examples, where lozenges were worked into abstract arrangements with other shapes, which have long been considered to have carried obscure spiritual meanings. Such designs show up in early medieval manuscripts, sometimes annotated, as visualisations of theological or metaphysical concepts, but many remain obscure. Skipping ahead we see the lozenge, as a symbol, and its associated patterns becoming increasingly important in heraldry, and in stately architecture (as discussed in much more depth in the upcoming book on which this series is based) having been extensively seeded during the first millennium, and in religious art, it becomes increasingly common to depict 'Christ in Majesty' in a lozenge frame.
The artistic traditions of the medieval world were highly networked, and although a review of such patterns beyond Britain is outside of the scope of this work, we note that the visual language we are grappling with is part of a wider shared heritage. It is therefore very likely that there remain key pieces of this puzzle known to others, especially in parts of the artistic network we cannot be so familiar with, that remain unknown to us. Hopefully, however, this also means that the learning perspectives offered in future chapters of this series might be helpful to those studying the art and achievements of other historic cultures and encourage further discoveries.
What do Lozenges Mean?
In this article we have seen how lozenges became a growing fixation of Anglo-Saxon material culture (and the art of associated cultures). In Britain this reaches back at least as far as early Anglo-Saxon material culture, but explodes in the 8th century particularly, when lozenge designs come to dominate dress items and the motifs and patterns of illuminated manuscripts. In those manuscripts we see lozenges sometimes used almost as the underlying framework of the art, and elsewhere (such as on Chi-Rho pages) as the central symbol which all other elements point towards.
Through the 8th century the prominence of the lozenge on elite jewellery, and increasingly, on coinage, suggests its status as a symbol of identity and/or power - its use propagandistically identifying the ruler with whatever concept it represented, in a way which reinforced their legitimacy, just as the inclusion of a cross on a coin sought to imply that the king on the coin had divine support. The timing suggests an association with Christianisation and the growth of capacity for scholarship, and while the lozenge's significance is, at least in part, religious, we have seen how it shows up in both pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon art, and the distinctive art styles of the early 'Vikings'.
Previous discussion of the significance of the lozenge in Anglo-Saxon art has concluded that it symbolically expresses "the fourfold nature of the cosmos centred on the 'Creator-Logos' Christ" and the "fourfold nature of the universe" (Hawkes, 2003) which (see below) is partly true, yet not entirely satisfying or sufficient, given that the natural, obvious and well-established shape for exploring and representing quartile relationships (as already discussed, See Chapter 1) is the rotating square, and that lozenges clearly have significance in non-Christian art too.
In future chapters we will explain what we believe to be the true meaning of the Anglo-Saxons' obsession with the lozenge, which may be the key to unlocking other hitherto unexplained aspects of their art. In the meantime however we want to end with one more lozenge:
Anglo-Saxon scholars were fascinated by natural philosophy (including the work of Classical thinkers such as Ptolemy, already discussed) and produced elegant 'Computus diagrams' for visualising patterns, harmonies and balance in the natural world and in scripture, and in some cases for aiding calculation of key dates in the religious calendar. These diagrams are often built on the 'tetrad' / quaternities - the observation that many natural phenomena appeared to exist in groups of four, reinforcing the sense of a balanced and harmonious order of the Cosmos. The pleasing harmony of these designs was itself thought to evidence the divine geometry of God.
Although often arranged within a circle (after Ptolemy, and giving rise to a long-lived tradition of 'magical' polygrams), the influential Computus diagram of Byrhtferth (11th century, Romsey Abbey) which comes down to us via at least 5 different manuscripts, instead is built around a lozenge, with the consequence that its outer ring (which simultaneously represents the signs of the zodiac, the calendar months, and lunar months) is forced to take the form of four arches rather than a continuous ring (Baker 1995).
Through the 8th century the prominence of the lozenge on elite jewellery, and increasingly, on coinage, suggests its status as a symbol of identity and/or power - its use propagandistically identifying the ruler with whatever concept it represented, in a way which reinforced their legitimacy, just as the inclusion of a cross on a coin sought to imply that the king on the coin had divine support. The timing suggests an association with Christianisation and the growth of capacity for scholarship, and while the lozenge's significance is, at least in part, religious, we have seen how it shows up in both pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon art, and the distinctive art styles of the early 'Vikings'.
Previous discussion of the significance of the lozenge in Anglo-Saxon art has concluded that it symbolically expresses "the fourfold nature of the cosmos centred on the 'Creator-Logos' Christ" and the "fourfold nature of the universe" (Hawkes, 2003) which (see below) is partly true, yet not entirely satisfying or sufficient, given that the natural, obvious and well-established shape for exploring and representing quartile relationships (as already discussed, See Chapter 1) is the rotating square, and that lozenges clearly have significance in non-Christian art too.
In future chapters we will explain what we believe to be the true meaning of the Anglo-Saxons' obsession with the lozenge, which may be the key to unlocking other hitherto unexplained aspects of their art. In the meantime however we want to end with one more lozenge:
Anglo-Saxon scholars were fascinated by natural philosophy (including the work of Classical thinkers such as Ptolemy, already discussed) and produced elegant 'Computus diagrams' for visualising patterns, harmonies and balance in the natural world and in scripture, and in some cases for aiding calculation of key dates in the religious calendar. These diagrams are often built on the 'tetrad' / quaternities - the observation that many natural phenomena appeared to exist in groups of four, reinforcing the sense of a balanced and harmonious order of the Cosmos. The pleasing harmony of these designs was itself thought to evidence the divine geometry of God.
Although often arranged within a circle (after Ptolemy, and giving rise to a long-lived tradition of 'magical' polygrams), the influential Computus diagram of Byrhtferth (11th century, Romsey Abbey) which comes down to us via at least 5 different manuscripts, instead is built around a lozenge, with the consequence that its outer ring (which simultaneously represents the signs of the zodiac, the calendar months, and lunar months) is forced to take the form of four arches rather than a continuous ring (Baker 1995).
Thorney Computus, Cambridgeshire, England, ca. 1102–10, Saint John’s College, Oxford, MS 17. The more complete of various copies of this diagram made by Byrhtferth of Romsey Abbey, early 11th century.
The central lozenge's points represent the cardinal directions / four winds, with East (Anathole) at the top) with capitals that, arranged by the sign-of-the-cross spell "Adam" (as first described by Augustine of Hippo, early 5th century). On the outer lozenge's points are the four 'elements'; earth, water, air and fire, also representing the solstices and equinoxes, and between them are nodes representing both the four seasons, and the four ages of man (childhood, adolescence, manhood and old-age). The circular nodes on the points of the lozenge are reminiscent of the brooch from the Kells Madonna. The symbols at the very centre of the diagram have not been satisfyingly explained (Baker, 1995).
Byrhtferth's diagram is just one of many, more typically circular diagrams produced by late Anglo-Saxon scholars, which together provide a fascinating insight into how they viewed the world. Among these, though, Byrhtferth's diagram appears to have been particularly popular and influential, judging by the number of copies which survive. We are left wondering; why did he chose to arrange the various natural phenomena- the elements, the zodiac, the four winds, and time itself, all revolving around a lozenge?
Byrhtferth's diagram is just one of many, more typically circular diagrams produced by late Anglo-Saxon scholars, which together provide a fascinating insight into how they viewed the world. Among these, though, Byrhtferth's diagram appears to have been particularly popular and influential, judging by the number of copies which survive. We are left wondering; why did he chose to arrange the various natural phenomena- the elements, the zodiac, the four winds, and time itself, all revolving around a lozenge?
References
Baker, P.S. 1995 Byrhtferth of Ramsey; De concordia mensium atque elementorum. Adapted from Baker & Lapidge 1995.
Bayliss, A., 2017. Anglo-Saxon graves and grave goods of the 6th and 7th centuries AD: a chronological framework. Routledge.
Carver, M.O.H. and Carver, M., 1998. Sutton Hoo: burial ground of kings?. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Crowfoot, E. and Hawkes, S.C., 1967. Early Anglo-Saxon gold braids. Medieval Archaeology, 11(1), pp.42-86.
Dickinson, T.M. and Härke, H., 1992. Early Anglo-Saxon Shields (Vol. 110). London: Society of Antiquaries of London.
Fern, C., Dickinson, T. and Webster, L., 2019. The Staffordshire Hoard. An Anglo-Saxon Treasure (p. 640). Society of Antiquaries of London.
Gannon, A., 2019. Art in the Round: Tradition and Creativity in Early Anglo-Saxon Coinage. Reading Medieval Sources.
Geake, H. 2018 Portable Antiquities Scheme recording guidelines: Brooches. [Online] [URL="https://finds.org.uk/counties/findsrecordingguides/brooches-2/#Introduction"] [Accessed 20/03/2023]
Hawkes, J., 2003. Sculpture on the Mercian Fringe: The Anglo-Saxon Crosses at Sandbach, Cheshire. Friends of All Saints' Church.
Owen-Crocker, G.R., 2004. Dress in Anglo-Saxon England. Boydell Press.
Schuster, J. 2012. Analysis of an Anglo-Saxon lozenge-shaped brooch for Corinium Museum, Cirencester. AsF Report 0001.02.
Speake, G., 1989. A Saxon bed burial on Swallowcliffe Down (Vol. 10). Historic Buildings & Monuments Commission for England.
Swanton, M.J., 1974. A corpus of pagan Anglo-Saxon spear-types. BAR Publishing.
Walton-Rogers, P., 2007. Cloth and clothing in early Anglo-Saxon England, AD 450-700 (No. 145). Council for British Archeology.
Weetch, R., 2014. Brooches in late Anglo-Saxon England within a north west European context: a study of social identities between the eighth and the eleventh centuries (Doctoral dissertation, University of Reading).
Bayliss, A., 2017. Anglo-Saxon graves and grave goods of the 6th and 7th centuries AD: a chronological framework. Routledge.
Carver, M.O.H. and Carver, M., 1998. Sutton Hoo: burial ground of kings?. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Crowfoot, E. and Hawkes, S.C., 1967. Early Anglo-Saxon gold braids. Medieval Archaeology, 11(1), pp.42-86.
Dickinson, T.M. and Härke, H., 1992. Early Anglo-Saxon Shields (Vol. 110). London: Society of Antiquaries of London.
Fern, C., Dickinson, T. and Webster, L., 2019. The Staffordshire Hoard. An Anglo-Saxon Treasure (p. 640). Society of Antiquaries of London.
Gannon, A., 2019. Art in the Round: Tradition and Creativity in Early Anglo-Saxon Coinage. Reading Medieval Sources.
Geake, H. 2018 Portable Antiquities Scheme recording guidelines: Brooches. [Online] [URL="https://finds.org.uk/counties/findsrecordingguides/brooches-2/#Introduction"] [Accessed 20/03/2023]
Hawkes, J., 2003. Sculpture on the Mercian Fringe: The Anglo-Saxon Crosses at Sandbach, Cheshire. Friends of All Saints' Church.
Owen-Crocker, G.R., 2004. Dress in Anglo-Saxon England. Boydell Press.
Schuster, J. 2012. Analysis of an Anglo-Saxon lozenge-shaped brooch for Corinium Museum, Cirencester. AsF Report 0001.02.
Speake, G., 1989. A Saxon bed burial on Swallowcliffe Down (Vol. 10). Historic Buildings & Monuments Commission for England.
Swanton, M.J., 1974. A corpus of pagan Anglo-Saxon spear-types. BAR Publishing.
Walton-Rogers, P., 2007. Cloth and clothing in early Anglo-Saxon England, AD 450-700 (No. 145). Council for British Archeology.
Weetch, R., 2014. Brooches in late Anglo-Saxon England within a north west European context: a study of social identities between the eighth and the eleventh centuries (Doctoral dissertation, University of Reading).
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