Special: Anglo-Saxon Elements of the Coronation
Edward the Confessor on the Bayeux Tapestry The approaching coronation of King Charles III represents a chain of similar coronation or consecration rites of monarchs in Britain reaching back at least 1000 years. The precise origins of many of these rites have been lost to time.
Over all though, with the history of the English monarchy often presented as beginning with William the Conqueror's coronation on Christmas Day 1066 at Westminster Abbey, it's easy to imagine Britain's deeper history is not represented in the ceremony. In fact, although less obvious than later medieval elements, there are significant parts of the coronation rite which reach back to, or attempt to reach out to (widest sense) Anglo-Saxon history.
Over all though, with the history of the English monarchy often presented as beginning with William the Conqueror's coronation on Christmas Day 1066 at Westminster Abbey, it's easy to imagine Britain's deeper history is not represented in the ceremony. In fact, although less obvious than later medieval elements, there are significant parts of the coronation rite which reach back to, or attempt to reach out to (widest sense) Anglo-Saxon history.
The venue: Westminster Abbey
Anglo-Saxon rites of coronation, or consecration, at least in the Christian period (broadly 650-1066 CE) likely predominantly took place in whichever minster enjoyed the greatest royal patronage within their respective kingdom at that time. For most Anglo-Saxon kings the venue for their consecration was not recorded.
During the 8th century - when the kingdom of Mercia was at the height of its power, consecrations of monarchs may well have occurred within the hallowed chamber of the Repton baptisty / mausoleum, or in the chapel above it, although the unaccountably grand (some have argued 'Carolingian style') basilica at Brixworth may also have hosted similar occasions in the late 8th to early 9th centuries. At the same time, consecrations of West Saxon kings are likely to have taken place in the Old Minster in Winchester.
During the 8th century - when the kingdom of Mercia was at the height of its power, consecrations of monarchs may well have occurred within the hallowed chamber of the Repton baptisty / mausoleum, or in the chapel above it, although the unaccountably grand (some have argued 'Carolingian style') basilica at Brixworth may also have hosted similar occasions in the late 8th to early 9th centuries. At the same time, consecrations of West Saxon kings are likely to have taken place in the Old Minster in Winchester.
Reconstruction of Winchester's Old and New Minsters (c9-11th)
In the early 10th century the site for the crowning of kings of Wessex (later, England) was Kingston upon Thames. These included first 'rex anglorum' (king of all the English) Æthelstan (925), and Æthelred the Unready (978). Other kings whose coronations were linked to Kingston in later chronicles include the remaining 10th century kings; Edward the Elder (902), Edmund I (939), Eadred (946), Eadwig (956), Edgar the Peaceful (circa 960) and Edward the Martyr (975).
The coronations may have taken place in the Chapel of St Mary, but later tradition connects them to a large stone now displayed in the grounds of the guildhall.
Kingston was a carefully chosen place for these rites - sitting on the traditional border between the united kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex, but very much on the south side respecting Wessex' supremacy. It was also placed close to, but not within the boundaries of the ancient city of London - the meeting-point of many kingdoms which had changed hands often, historically, and remained England's biggest population and trade hub.
Very unusually Cnut was crowned in London, but after his reign focus shifted back to the traditional 'capital' of Wessex; Winchester - and the Old Minster; then England's grandest cathedral.
The Old Minster (nothing of which now survives other than its footprint) was the venue for the coronation of King Edward the Confessor in 1043 just as it likely had been for the coronations of his distant predecessors in the 8-9th century.
It was King Edward the Confessor who, recognising the growing importance of London, began a new grand church or minster west of London, at a place which then became known as Westminster, intended for royal coronations and burials.
The coronations may have taken place in the Chapel of St Mary, but later tradition connects them to a large stone now displayed in the grounds of the guildhall.
Kingston was a carefully chosen place for these rites - sitting on the traditional border between the united kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex, but very much on the south side respecting Wessex' supremacy. It was also placed close to, but not within the boundaries of the ancient city of London - the meeting-point of many kingdoms which had changed hands often, historically, and remained England's biggest population and trade hub.
Very unusually Cnut was crowned in London, but after his reign focus shifted back to the traditional 'capital' of Wessex; Winchester - and the Old Minster; then England's grandest cathedral.
The Old Minster (nothing of which now survives other than its footprint) was the venue for the coronation of King Edward the Confessor in 1043 just as it likely had been for the coronations of his distant predecessors in the 8-9th century.
It was King Edward the Confessor who, recognising the growing importance of London, began a new grand church or minster west of London, at a place which then became known as Westminster, intended for royal coronations and burials.
Westminster Abbey as depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry (scene of the funeral of King Edward the Confessor)
It was built in a forward-looking continental Anglo-Norman Romanesque style and was consecrated in December 1065 CE, only a week before the king's death. The building was not truly completed until the 1090s.
It features prominently on the Bayeux Tapestry and was subsequently (probably) used for the coronations of Harold II on the 6th of January 1066, and (more certainly) of William the Conqueror on Christmas day, 1066.
Thus, although little of the original building survives (entirely rebuilt during the reign of Henry III), Westminster Abbey was already established as the site for English coronations by the very end of the Anglo-Saxon Age.
It features prominently on the Bayeux Tapestry and was subsequently (probably) used for the coronations of Harold II on the 6th of January 1066, and (more certainly) of William the Conqueror on Christmas day, 1066.
Thus, although little of the original building survives (entirely rebuilt during the reign of Henry III), Westminster Abbey was already established as the site for English coronations by the very end of the Anglo-Saxon Age.
The Crown and Sceptre
The investiture or consecration of early Anglo-Saxon kings appears to have involved physical regalia as symbols of office, most probably an elaborate helmet in place of a crown, a sword, and other more mysterious objects. Various items from the famous early 7th century kingly burial of Sutton Hoo Mound 1 likely represent such regalia, which included a carved whetstone (sometimes referred to as a sceptre), a large iron standard (also sometimes referred to as a sceptre), an iron axe-hammer (also regarded as a sceptre) and a more delicate rod decorated with gold strips and appliques which has been termed a 'wand' of office.
As part of 'Romanitas' -- the trend for Anglo-Saxon nobility to attempt to emulate all things Roman -- mid Anglo-Saxon kings were often depicted wearing circlets or diadems in coin-portraiture, but the first depiction of a true 'crown' as we would recognise it is probably the frontispiece of the copy of Bede's Life of Saint Cuthbert commissioned for the saint's shrine by King Æthelstan in 934 CE. This shows King Æthelstan himself presenting a copy of the book to the saint, and shows him wearing a gold crown similar to those seen on his coins.
King Æthelstan, wearing a crown, presents a copy of the book to Saint Cuthbert). MS 183, f.1v at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
The involvement of both crown and sceptre in the English coronation rite is reportedly first recorded in relation to the coronation of King Edgar the Peaceful (circa 960 CE). In turn Edward the Confessor is depicted wearing an elaborate crown on the Bayeux Tapestry.
Later records of Westminster Abbey record that Edward the Confessor had left all his coronation regalia to the abbey to be reused in the coronations of future monarchs. An especially elaborate jewelled crown ("Saint Edward's Crown") decorated with filigree and cloisonne, first recorded being used for the coronation of Henry III, was claimed to be one of these relics, and continued to be used for coronations until its unfortunate destruction during the Civil War. It's even more elaborate replacement, still used for coronations, was made during the reign of Charles II and carries forward only the original's name.
Later records of Westminster Abbey record that Edward the Confessor had left all his coronation regalia to the abbey to be reused in the coronations of future monarchs. An especially elaborate jewelled crown ("Saint Edward's Crown") decorated with filigree and cloisonne, first recorded being used for the coronation of Henry III, was claimed to be one of these relics, and continued to be used for coronations until its unfortunate destruction during the Civil War. It's even more elaborate replacement, still used for coronations, was made during the reign of Charles II and carries forward only the original's name.
The Sword
Among the other regalia, a new monarch is presented with a ceremonial sword known as the 'Sword of Offering' as part of the coronation ritual following the anointing (itself a ritual with Old Testament and therefore ostensibly 'Bronze Age' origins).
The presentation of a sword was certainly also part of the Anglo-Saxon coronation or consecration rite for monarchs, though swords were symbols of warrior and aristocratic status and not exclusive to kings. Of particular note, the medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury records that the young prince Æthelstan was presented with a 'royal cloak' and sword and 'golden scabbard' in a ceremony by his grandfather King Alfred which historians take to have been a pseudo-consecration for Alfred's preferred grandson to eventually carry on his legacy, possibly in defiance of the wishes of Alfred's son and heir (and Æthelstan's father) Edward the Elder who had chosen his younger son (by his second wife) to succeed.
The presentation of a sword at the modern coronation therefore evokes the image of a similar scene between two of Anglo-Saxon England's founding kings.
The presentation of a sword was certainly also part of the Anglo-Saxon coronation or consecration rite for monarchs, though swords were symbols of warrior and aristocratic status and not exclusive to kings. Of particular note, the medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury records that the young prince Æthelstan was presented with a 'royal cloak' and sword and 'golden scabbard' in a ceremony by his grandfather King Alfred which historians take to have been a pseudo-consecration for Alfred's preferred grandson to eventually carry on his legacy, possibly in defiance of the wishes of Alfred's son and heir (and Æthelstan's father) Edward the Elder who had chosen his younger son (by his second wife) to succeed.
The presentation of a sword at the modern coronation therefore evokes the image of a similar scene between two of Anglo-Saxon England's founding kings.
The Archbishop of Canterbury
It is likely that since mid Anglo-Saxon times at the latest it has been tradition for coronations to be presided over by the most senior member of the clergy available within the relevant kingdom. Prior to the 10th century it was rarely recorded who presided over coronations or consecrations, but at the emergence of the unified kingdom of England in the early 10th century this responsibility fell to the Archbishop of Canterbury, Athelm, who crowned King Æthelstan at Kingston in 924 CE.
The Archbishopric of Canterbury had held seniority over all others in lowland Britain since at least the mid 7th century. From the 10th century it thus typically fell to whomever held this office to preside over coronations.
Important exceptions are the coronations of Harold II and William the Conqueror, in Westminster Abbey in 1066, as the then Archbishop of Canterbury Stigant (d 1072) had been excommunicated by the pope for simultaneously holding the bishopric of Winchester.
The Archbishopric of Canterbury had held seniority over all others in lowland Britain since at least the mid 7th century. From the 10th century it thus typically fell to whomever held this office to preside over coronations.
Important exceptions are the coronations of Harold II and William the Conqueror, in Westminster Abbey in 1066, as the then Archbishop of Canterbury Stigant (d 1072) had been excommunicated by the pope for simultaneously holding the bishopric of Winchester.
Bayeux Tapestry. Coronation of Harold II, prominently featuring Archbishop 'Stigant' (Stigand) of Canterbury
This meant that any coronation undertaken by him might subsequently be viewed as illegitimate, and indeed, Norman Chroniclers later did claim it was Stigant who crowned Harold, reinforcing their claim that his kingship was void; a claim disputed by English Chroniclers such as William of Malmesbury. Nevertheless it is Stigant who stands beside Harold in his coronation scene on the Norman-flattering Bayeux Tapestry, while Ealdred, Archbishop of York crowned William.
If William of Malmesbury is correct, both of the first coronations to take place in Westminster Abbey were actually presided over by Ealdred, Archbishop of York. With the coronation of William II by Lanfranc in 1087 responsibility for crowning new monarchs returned to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and (with few exceptions) this has been the norm ever since.
If William of Malmesbury is correct, both of the first coronations to take place in Westminster Abbey were actually presided over by Ealdred, Archbishop of York. With the coronation of William II by Lanfranc in 1087 responsibility for crowning new monarchs returned to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and (with few exceptions) this has been the norm ever since.
The Cosmati Pavement
The spectacular square mosaic floor at the centre of Westminster Abbey's coronation theatre defines the precise spot where every monarch of England has been crowned since 1274, and although it significantly post-dates the Anglo-Saxon period it has a curious Anglo-Saxon connection.
Henry III rebuilt Westminster Abbey (in contemporary Gothic style) and chose Edward the Confessor, builder of the original abbey as his patron saint, relocating his remains into a fabulously decorated new shrine with spiralling columns and intricate Cosmatesque decoration, looking out the spectacular Cosmati Pavement. This honouring of England's last truly great Anglo-Saxon king was part of a wider programme (including substantial works for charity, and an energetic programme of travel) which sought to reconcile the monarchy with the English people, and he appears to have looked to rare, surviving spaces associated with Anglo-Saxon saints, and kingship, as inspiration for his works at Westminster.
Henry III rebuilt Westminster Abbey (in contemporary Gothic style) and chose Edward the Confessor, builder of the original abbey as his patron saint, relocating his remains into a fabulously decorated new shrine with spiralling columns and intricate Cosmatesque decoration, looking out the spectacular Cosmati Pavement. This honouring of England's last truly great Anglo-Saxon king was part of a wider programme (including substantial works for charity, and an energetic programme of travel) which sought to reconcile the monarchy with the English people, and he appears to have looked to rare, surviving spaces associated with Anglo-Saxon saints, and kingship, as inspiration for his works at Westminster.
In particular, as well as the characteristic spiralling pillars of St Edward's shrine, it has been observed that the coronation pavement bears a striking resemblance to the floorplan of the Royal Mercian mausoleum, baptistry, or perhaps coronation room, beneath the church of St Wystan in Repton, with its four bays set midway into its walls (loculi which originally held the bones of Mercian Kings and saints) corresponding perfectly to rectangular elements in the borders of the Cosmati floor which in the traditions of the abbey are referred to as 'tombs'. Excluding the border which contains these 'tombs' (corresponding to the walls of the Repton room) the square interior of the pavement corresponds precisely in size to the inner measurements of the Anglo-Saxon room at Repton, while other aspects of the design appear to reference the patterns seen in Anglo-Saxon jewellery, relating to the geometry of garnets (for more information see "Secrets in the Stones Part 4: The Garnet Code" by James D. Wenn).
It thus appears that Henry III transplanted the design of an ancient building associated with Anglo-Saxon kingship and sainthood, in symbolic form, into the heart of Westminster Abbey, so that coronations on this floor would connect with the traditions of kingship in Britain's deeper history.
It thus appears that Henry III transplanted the design of an ancient building associated with Anglo-Saxon kingship and sainthood, in symbolic form, into the heart of Westminster Abbey, so that coronations on this floor would connect with the traditions of kingship in Britain's deeper history.
Stone of Scone & Throne of Saint Edward
An Lia Fàil / clach-na-cinneamhain or the Stone of Scone is a rectangular slab of red sandstone on which kings in Scotland sat during their coronation, according to tradition, with legend tracing its use as far back as the 5th century CE.
In 1296 during the First Scottish War of Independence the stone was looted from its traditional home of Scone Abbey near Perth by the forces of King Edward I, and it was subsequently installed into a new Gothic style throne of oak, decorated with gilding and coloured glass. Kept at Westminster Abbey together with the relics of Edward the Confessor it became known as Saint Edward's Chair (though more accurately it is the later King Edward I's chair) and begun to be used for coronations during the 14th century.
In 1296 during the First Scottish War of Independence the stone was looted from its traditional home of Scone Abbey near Perth by the forces of King Edward I, and it was subsequently installed into a new Gothic style throne of oak, decorated with gilding and coloured glass. Kept at Westminster Abbey together with the relics of Edward the Confessor it became known as Saint Edward's Chair (though more accurately it is the later King Edward I's chair) and begun to be used for coronations during the 14th century.
19th century etching of the Coronation Chair with the Stone of Scone set into its seat
This Coronation Chair can thus not truly be regarded as a relic of Anglo-Saxon coronations, though the Stone of Scone which sits within it might be regarded as just such a relic from the coronation rites of early medieval Scotland. Although the authenticity of the stone which survives to this day has been called into question it nevertheless represents some degree of continuity in the coronation rites with respect to Scotland. The stone was returned to Scotland in 1996 and is displayed in the Crown Room of Edinburgh Castle, only to be temporarily re-installed into Saint Edward's Throne for the occasion of coronations.
The St Augustine Gospels
It has been announced that at the personal request of King Charles III the oldest surviving Anglo-Saxon book - The Canterbury or Saint Augustine Gospels (Corpus Christi College, Lib. MS. 286) - will be brought and play a role in the ceremony. This illuminated manuscript is thought to have been brought with the mission of Saint Augustine in 597 CE to convert the Kingdom of Kent and the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of lowland Britain more broadly.
The Augustine Gospels are a miraculous survivor particularly of the turbulent years of the Reformation and Dissolution of the Monasteries in which countless surviving Anglo-Saxon treasures were lost. Its survival can be attributed to Matthew Parker -- first protestant archbishop of Canterbury -- who as an early historian of Anglo-Saxon England sought to save as many manuscripts as he could, even at times when some were considered heretical. It was likely taken from St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury, and hidden at his repository -- of unknown location -- for safekeeping until after the turmoil had ended. This secret repository has been connected to the unusual, remote 'reliquary' Tudor home of his associate Rowland Hill - Soulton Hall in Shropshire.
These precious documents would go on to be donated to Corpus Christi, Cambridge forming the largest collection of Anglo-Saxon literature - the Parker Library.
The Augustine Gospels are a miraculous survivor particularly of the turbulent years of the Reformation and Dissolution of the Monasteries in which countless surviving Anglo-Saxon treasures were lost. Its survival can be attributed to Matthew Parker -- first protestant archbishop of Canterbury -- who as an early historian of Anglo-Saxon England sought to save as many manuscripts as he could, even at times when some were considered heretical. It was likely taken from St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury, and hidden at his repository -- of unknown location -- for safekeeping until after the turmoil had ended. This secret repository has been connected to the unusual, remote 'reliquary' Tudor home of his associate Rowland Hill - Soulton Hall in Shropshire.
These precious documents would go on to be donated to Corpus Christi, Cambridge forming the largest collection of Anglo-Saxon literature - the Parker Library.
Luke the Evangelist illumination from St Augustine's Gospels, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, MS 286, folio 129r. (Public Domain)
Since 1945 the Augustine Gospels have played a role in the initial enthronement of new Archbishops of Canterbury, carried to Canterbury by the librarian of Corpus Christi - and used for the new archbishop to swear oaths on. Their use in the Coronation of Charles III is an innovation, though these gospels likely played a role in the consecration of kings of Kent in the 7th century, and perhaps of amalgamated kingdoms in the 8-11th centuries.
This innovation, reportedly at the specific request of the new king is an important gesture of recognition of and respect for Anglo-Saxon heritage.
This innovation, reportedly at the specific request of the new king is an important gesture of recognition of and respect for Anglo-Saxon heritage.
The coronation of Charles III we will see in May 2023 will contain aspects of art and liturgy with roots that stretch deep into English and Anglo-Saxon history. Every century and fashion has made an impact, however, and the Anglo-Saxon origins of the parts of the ritual discussed above often need explanation to be appreciated.
The Thegns of Mercia are dedicated to improving access and understanding of the (broadest sense) Anglo-Saxon cultural complex, as well as the impact of the period on the world of today. As a diverse and highly networked cultural complex, the involvement of Anglo-Saxon history and symbolism in important moments of our national life such as this is emblematic of diversity and inclusion as a founding principle of our national character. The Anglo-Saxons' impact on contemporary UK life stretches beyond traditional royal liturgy, so follow our blog and come along to our events to hear more about topics such as clothing, jewellery, books and literature, medicine, religion, the military, and much more. As you watch the coronation in Westminster Abbey, please comment below if you spot any other aspects of the service that you think have Anglo-Saxon period origins.
The Thegns of Mercia are dedicated to improving access and understanding of the (broadest sense) Anglo-Saxon cultural complex, as well as the impact of the period on the world of today. As a diverse and highly networked cultural complex, the involvement of Anglo-Saxon history and symbolism in important moments of our national life such as this is emblematic of diversity and inclusion as a founding principle of our national character. The Anglo-Saxons' impact on contemporary UK life stretches beyond traditional royal liturgy, so follow our blog and come along to our events to hear more about topics such as clothing, jewellery, books and literature, medicine, religion, the military, and much more. As you watch the coronation in Westminster Abbey, please comment below if you spot any other aspects of the service that you think have Anglo-Saxon period origins.
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